Dairy Cattle Management in a Hot Environment

I have my temperature widget on my desktop and noticed that it's getting hotter and hotter every day. Temperature would range from 30 to 35 degrees centigrade on a daily basis and this affects dairy cattle management or backyard cattle raising.   

Hot environments affect the performance of dairy cattle both directly and indirectly. To attain the fullest genetic performance, environmental conditions and diets should be modified. Thermal factors consist of air temperature, humidity, air movement, and radiation rate. In lactating Holstein cows, the comfortable temperature is within the range 4-24oC (Hahn 1981). The effects of heat stress on the cows begin to be observed above 24oC, and milk yield decreases markedly above 27oC (Johnson 1965).

A decline in milk yield, fertility, and growth rate in hot environments is closely related to an increase in body temperature (BT). BT results from the balance between heat production (HP) and heat loss (HL). Since humidity affects the HL from an animal under high temperature conditions, dairy cattle performance falls markedly in hot, humid summers. Moreover, HP is associated with feed intake level, which in turn affects the production level. In high-producing cows, the HP is higher, and the effect of a hot environment is more pronounced. More.

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Care of Newly Purchased Feeder Cattle

The way cattle are handled shortly before loading, during hauling, and the first two weeks in the feedlot has a great influence on the overall performance of feedlot cattle. There is no one program that will give best results for all feeder cattle, nor will the same results occur each year. "Cattle sense" is developed by close observation and experience.

Keep records on each bunch of cattle. These records will be useful in helping you provide the most practical and economical program for the next group of incoming cattle. Develop a program that fits your operation and area.

Post mortem examinations are worthwhile in ascertaining problems. The results should be considered for future health and management programs.

The following are general guidelines that should be helpful to you in deciding how to handle newly purchased feeder cattle.

Considerations before purchase

Disease and parasite problems are more apt to occur, and with greater severity, in calves under 400 pounds.

Bunching of cattle from several groups is conducive to the introduction and spread of diseases and parasites.

Preconditioned calves usually are less likely to develop disease.

If possible, secure a history of vaccinations and other pertinent information on cattle that are to be purchased.

Avoid purchasing sick calves or those exposed to sick cattle.

Reducing stress from shipment

If there is any doubt about the health of cattle, take the body temperature prior to loading. It is more economical to treat feverish cattle and to delay shipment.

Insist that cattle are assembled and held for shipment for the shortest period of time possible.

Avoid overcrowding cattle during hauling. Overcrowding creates excitement, slipping and falling. Calves weighing 500 pounds should have approximately 8 square feet of floor space each.

Trucks that have wooden floors should be bedded with sand, or straw and sand, to help prevent slipping and falling. Straw should be used in trucks that have aluminum floors in order to absorb excess moisture.

Don't use electric prods. Handle cattle as gently as possible when loading and unloading. Any excitement is stressful.

Buyers should insist that cattle be trucked from point of origin to feed yard in the shortest time practical. Two drivers on long hauls has been shown to reduce morbidity and mortality after arrival at feedlot.

Managing new arrivals

Thoroughly clean and repair lot and equipment for new cattle. Repair fences and fill mud holes. Remove wire, stones and other objects. These measures should reduce foot injuries and foot rot problems.

Provide unloading facilities and chutes so cattle are handled with least amount of stress. Chutes should be no more than 24 inches in width for cattle up to 1,000 pounds. Avoid frequent handling or movement of cattle until they have recovered from stress of shipment.

A small lot should be provided for treatment and isolation of sick animals. Individual, easily cleaned feed and water containers should be available. The lot should have a squeeze gate or some method to restrain animals for examination and treatment.

Keep animals from different sources separated as much as possible. New arrivals should be penned apart from cattle already in the lot and kept from drinking the same water or eating from the same bunk.

Observe cattle frequently and at a distance before animals are aroused.

Watch for cattle that fail to eat, appear tired or show other signs of illness.

Take sick animals to sick pen for diagnosis and possible treatment by or upon advice of a veterinarian.

Take body temperatures. Treat cattle with temperatures over 103.5 degrees F. A temperature elevation is often the first sign of sickness. Electronic thermometers are now available that will give an accurate body temperature within 15 seconds or less. Livestock temperatures can be taken without holding up processing.

Medication

Consult veterinarian for vaccination program.

Most feedlot operators and backgrounders revaccinate incoming cattle even though the cattle have been previously vaccinated. In most cases this practice appears to be economically beneficial and is worth the additional disease prevention.

In practice, preconditioning may not be as good as it sounds. This practice is not without its critics.

The practice of weaning calves three to four weeks before shipment and feeding them a preconditioning ration was not economical for either the cow-calf producer or the cattle feeder in a summary of 20 experiments, according to Dr. Andy Cole, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Bushland, Texas.

In feeding studies, calves were weaned and fed a concentrate diet for 30 days prior to weaning, as compared to leaving them on the cow without feed. Preconditioned calves tended to have poorer feed efficiencies in the feedlot in comparison to the control group.

Recent studies at Iowa State University indicated that in general, preconditioning by cow-calf producers was not profitable for either the cow-calf producer or the cattle feeder.

An alternative program to preconditioning that could be economical for both the cow-calf producer and the cattle feeder would be leaving the calf on the cow and limit feeding 1 to 3 pounds of creep feed per head daily for the last 30 to 60 days before shipping, according to Cole. Calves should be castrated and dehorned. The use of high-energy feeds both prior to shipping and on arrival for animals under 400 pounds seems to be consistently beneficial.

The use of antibiotics before shipment has not proved to be consistently beneficial. However, cattle that have been in sale barns or holding facilities for 72 hours or more should be closely checked for fever and other indications of illness and treated before shipment if so indicated.

Vaccinate at time of arrival if cattle are healthy. If cattle are sick or extremely stressed or fatigued, processing should be delayed 24 to 48 hours. A suggested program is to vaccinate on arrival against IBR, BVD, PI3, BRSV, 7-way clostridial and lot tag and implant. It is somewhat debatable whether to deworm, and back pour for grubs and lice at this time or delay until cattle are settled in or when the second round of vaccinations for IBR, BVD, PI3 and BRSV are given at 5 to 14 days post arrival. The same can be said for castration and dehorning. In fact horn tipping should be highly considered versus dehorning.

Internal parasites reduce the appetite of cattle. Cattle with reduced appetites gain less, are more susceptible to disease, and are slower to recover from disease. The greatest benefit from worm treatment is derived during the early phase of the feeding period.

Practically all calves weighing 400 to 500 pounds off grass should be treated for internal parasites. It may not be necessary to treat yearling cattle. Several effective dewormers are available either as drenches, injectables or pour-ons. The cost and overall effectiveness should be considered. The best time is before shipment to the feedlot. The next best time is when they are being vaccinated and worked through a chute following arrival at the feedlot.

Sick cattle that have not received worm treatment should receive one of the nontoxic worm treatments as a part of the overall treatment.

External parasite control mainly involves lice and grubs. Consult a veterinarian concerning cutoff dates on use of organic phosphates for grub control and the probable side effects if these dates are ignored. Serious ill effects or even death may occur if organic phosphates and phenothiazine are administered within a month of each other.

Nutrition

Most cattle have been without feed for 24 to 48 hours when they arrive at the feedlot. They have a reduction and shift in their rumen bacteria population that makes them susceptible to digestive upsets. University of California work indicated that after 48 hours of starvation, rumen bacterial numbers were reduced to 10 to 15 percent of normal. The chance of lactic acid build-up in the rumen was greatly increased in starved cattle that were offered energy feeds. Lactic acid-producing bacteria had a good survival, whereas bacteria that use lactic acid were completely absent.

The following goals for a feeding program to start new cattle explain why it is difficult to outline a system that is best for all situations. Rations that satisfy one goal may be wrong for one or more of the other goals. Thus, starting rations usually wind up being a compromise.

Goals
To provide maximum energy input to restore health and disease resistance.
To provide for rapid restoration of rumen function and rapid adjustment to growing or fattening rations.
To prevent rumen disorders.

One method is to feed a low-energy ration such as a low-quality roughage. This type of ration will satisfy the third objective since rumen disorders are usually kept to a minimum. However, such rations do not provide maximum energy to restore health and disease resistance (goal 1), or condition animals to high-energy growing or finishing rations (goal 2).

The other extreme is to use a high-quality roughage with various combinations of grain. These higher-energy rations provide quick restoration of health and disease resistance (goal 1), hasten the return to normal rumen function and rapidly adjust the animal to high-grain rations (goal 2). But higher-energy rations increase the danger of something going wrong to cause rumen disorders (goal 3).

High-energy rations tend to cause a rapid build-up of lactic acid-producing organisms in the underpopulated rumen. These bacteria often produce more acid than can be used by other organisms or dissipated by the animal. Acid accumulation causes a sharp drop in rumen pH. The resulting acidosis in the system of the animal can cause it to go off feed, become sluggish, have diarrhea, and become dehydrated.

Water

It is advisable to use shallow pens or a temporary fence across the pen to keep new cattle close to water tanks and feed bunks.

Highly stressed cattle offered water only for the first 6 to 8 hours after arrival at the feedlot and then given feed consumed more feed the first day than cattle offered feed followed by water 6 to 8 hours later in studies at Texas Tech University. Giving both feed and water on arrival produced intermediate results on feed intake for the first day.

Most cattle are not accustomed to drinking from automatic waterers. You may need to add stock tanks to receiving pens. If possible, use running water to attract cattle by typing down float on water tank. In extreme cases cattle may be turned to a stream or pond to get them to drink.

Waterers should be kept clean and free of algae and waste feed.

Receiving rations

Getting calves to eat enough of a receiving ration at the start is a problem. New calves ate intermittently in Texas studies. Half of the calves did not eat any feed on the third day after arrival. About 85 percent of the calves were coming to the feed trough daily by the 10th day. Calves were found to eat 0.5 to 1.0 percent of their body weight as feed the first week and 1.5 to 2.0 percent during the second week. Thus, receiving rations must be palatable and highly fortified with nutrients if stressed calves are going to consume close to their daily nutrient needs the first two weeks after arrival.

Extensive studies at the University of California and New Mexico State University have indicated a receiving ration with 70 to 75 percent concentrates worked best for highly stressed calves weighing 275 to 400 pounds. A ration with 50 percent concentrate was best for receiving yearling cattle. The incidence of Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) in highly stressed calves increased with higher levels of energy in receiving rations. Providing long stem stress hay or alfalfa hay free-choice for the first week with 70 to 75 percent concentrate rations reduced the effect of high energy on the occurrence of BRD. Other hays that have been used successfully for new cattle include oat, wheat and Sudan grass.

Milo and barley, which are lower in energy than corn, were used in these 70 to 75 percent concentrate rations. In Iowa State University studies, when corn was used with soybean meal to supply the concentrate, a 60 percent concentrate ration was superior to a 75 percent concentrate ration for starting newly weaned calves that had not been stressed through market channels. This 60 percent concentrate ration had similar energy to the 75 percent concentrate rations used in the California and New Mexico studies.

Corn cobs were used for the 25 to 40 percent roughage in dry milled rations while corn silage and alfalfa hay were the source of roughage in conventional cornbelt starting rations in the Iowa trials. Results were similar with the two types of receiving rations showing that corn silage can be used successfully in receiving rations for calves. However, starting calves on a 60 percent milled diet and then converting them to silage during the third week gave 1.0 pound per head more daily gain the first two weeks compared to starting calves directly on a diet of 86.4 percent corn silage and 13.6 percent supplement on a dry matter basis.

Grass hay plus 2 pounds of protein supplement per head daily gave lower performance than 50 to 75 percent concentrate milled rations fed with free-choice prairie hay in New Mexico work. However, results at the University of Oklahoma showed their best receiving diet for highly stressed calves was free-choice prairie hay and 2 pounds of a pelleted, 30 to 40 percent protein supplement.

Guides for receiving rations

Natural protein is superior to urea for the first four weeks of the starting period for calves. Cattle under 600 pounds will continue to perform better on natural versus urea protein supplements. A 70 percent concentrate ration should contain 14 percent crude protein (dry matter basis). A protein blend of blood meal and corn gluten meal, high bypass protein sources, caused stressed calves to regain their purchase weight 15 percent faster than those fed cottonseed meal in California comparisons.

These high bypass protein sources, cottonseed meal or a blend of cottonseed meal and bypass protein were superior to urea for the first 4 weeks for new calves in Texas Tech University studies. Texas A&M University studies showed calves that are to go through marketing and transit stresses should be fed a low (8 percent) protein diet prior to transport and a high (15 percent DM) protein diet upon arrival at the feedlot.

Cattle lose body water and body potassium during transit. Receiving rations with around 1.3 percent potassium (dry matter) for the first two weeks after arrival have tended to increase weight recovery and improve the health of stressed calves over rations with lower levels of potassium. After the first two weeks the potassium can be lowered to 0.8 to 1.0 percent. A calcium level of 0.65 percent and a phosphorus level of 0.33 percent in the dry matter of the ration are recommended. Salt is usually added at 0.3 to 0.5 percent.

Vitamin A should be added at 2,500 to 3,500 I.U., Vitamin D at 350 I.U., and Vitamin E at 50 to 100 I.U. per pound of ration. The daily per head supplementation of these vitamins would be: Vitamin A 30,000 I.U., Vitamin D 3,000 I.U. and Vitamin E 400 I.U. Results with B-complex vitamins in receiving rations have been variable. Positive results were obtained by adding 600 mg niacin, 200 mg thiamin, and 750 mg choline per head daily plus minor quantities of the other B-complex vitamins to receiving rations for stressed 450-pound calves at a Kansas Experiment Station.

Adding the ionophores Rumensin® or Bovatec® to receiving rations has increased performance. Bovatec is added at 30 grams per ton of ration. Rumensin may cause a noticeable decrease in feed intake until cattle become accustomed to it. Add 10 grams of Rumensin per ton to receiving rations for the first two weeks and then increase to 25 to 30 grams per ton thereafter.

Coccidiosis can be a problem in feeder cattle. Infected cattle fed a coccidiostat (decoquinate) for the first 28 days in a Texas trial had increased performance and less mortality. Bovatec and Rumensin will aid in controlling coccidiosis in cattle. The reduced level of Rumensin recommended for starting rations reduces its effectiveness as a coccidiostat. Feeding 0.4 to 0.8 grams of an antibiotic per head daily for three to four weeks has decreased sickness and improved rate of gain and feed efficiency for cattle starting on feed. Some of this extra gain may be lost later in the feeding period.

Consult with your veterinarian about the use of high levels of antibiotics in receiving rations to be sure it doesn't interfere with the therapeutic use of medicines that he is prescribing.

Probiotics is the concept of inoculating the digestive tract of an animal with beneficial organisms. Probiotics can be administered through the feed or through pastes, gels, drenches and the drinking water. Research results have varied on the use of probiotics to improve the performance of cattle coming into the feedlot. Further developments should be watched to determine the value of this practice.

Table 1. Number of animals for safe loading. Cattle per truck (by weight in pounds)
Average 700 lbs. 800 lbs. 900 lbs. 1,000 lbs. 1,100 lbs.
13-foot truck 11 10 9 8 7
16-foot truck 14 13 12 11 10
20-foot truck 18 16 15 13 12
24-foot truck 22 20 18 16 15
40-foot truck 36 32 30 26 24


Table 2. Receiving rations. Percent concentrate: 62 65 65 581
Ground corn 42.5 49.75 42.0 0.85
Soybean meal 13.5 9.0 16.9 5.2
Molasses 5.0 5.0 4.0 0.17
Alfalfa meal, dehydrated 7.5 — — —
Alfalfa hay — 15.0 — —
Fescue hay — 20.0 — —
Cottonseed hulls 30.0 — — —
Corn cobs — — 34.6 —
Corn silage (33% DM) — — — 93.0
Dicalcium phosphate 0.35 0.35 0.4 0.15
Limestone 0.75 0.5 1.1 0.35
Potassium chloride — — 0.6 0.1
Trace mineral salt 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.18
Coccidiostat or ionophore + + + +
Vitamin A, D & E2 + + + +
1The 7 pounds of concentrate fed with the 93 pounds of silage has this formula: Ground corn 121.43, soybean meal 742.86, molasses 24.29, Dical 21.43, limestone 50, potassium chloride 14.29, trace salt 25.71. the ratio of the concentrate to corn silage should change in the same ratio that silage dry matter changes from 33%.
2Provide 3,000 I.U. of Vitamin A, 350 I.U. Vitamin D and 50 I.U. Vitamin D per pound of ration.


Table 2. Composition DM basis. Protein 14.2 14.0 14.1 13.4
TDN 69.6 71.9 70.5 70.1

Ca 0.67 0.69 0.7 0.68

P 0.35 0.36 0.35 0.36

K 1.05 1.17 1.25 1.23



Copyright 1999 University of Missouri. Published by University Extension, University of Missouri-Columbia.

Please use our feedback form for questions or comments about this or any other publication contained on the Explore site.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture. Ronald J. Turner, Director, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Missouri and Lincoln University, Columbia, Missouri 65211. • University Extension does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability or status as a Vietnam-era veteran in employment or programs. If you have special needs as addressed by the Americans with Disabilities Act and need this publication in an alternative format, write ADA Officer, Extension and Agricultural Information, 1-98 Agriculture Building, Columbia, MO 65211, or call (573) 882-7216. Reasonable efforts will be made to accommodate your special needs.

Agricultural publication G02102 — Reviewed October 1, 1993


Bonnard L. Moseley, DVM
College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri-Columbia
Homer B. Sewell
Department of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri-Columbia

Disease Process in Animals: Foot Rot in Cattle

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Disease Process in Animals: Foot Rot in Cattle

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Feedlot Ration

ALWAYS READ THE LABEL

Users of agricultural (or veterinary) chemical products must always read the label and any Permit before using the product, and strictly comply with the directions on the label and the conditions of any Permit. Users are not absolved from compliance with the directions on the label or the conditions of the Permit by reason of any statement made or not made in this publication.

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DISCLAIMER

The product trade names in this publication are supplied on the understanding that no preference between equivalent products is intended and that the inclusion of a product does not imply endorsement by NSW Agriculture over any other equivalent product from another manufacturer.

Purpose of the ration

A feedlot ration should be designed to give maximum weight gains and fattening rates at the lowest cost with minimum digestive upset.

Daily feed intake

In many cases, differences in individual feed capacities probably vary more within a group of similar cattle than between different categories.

Most feedlot rations tend to be based on grain, plus dry roughage, with an average dry matter content of around 90%. Therefore, when preparing a budget, calculations can be simplified if you use an intake capacity of 3% of liveweight to calculate the actual weight of feed required. This applies to a ration that is around the 90% dry matter.

However, if using a silage or green chop based ration, with an average dry matter less than 80%, or designing a ration to provide energy and crude protein requirements, calculations should be made on a dry matter basis; see ‘Dry matter’ and table 6 below, table 8 in Suitability of feedstuffs, and table 9 in Buying feed on a feed value basis.

Table 6 provides details of daily feed capacities, metabolisable energy and crude protein requirements on a dry matter basis, for various categories and liveweights of cattle.

Dry matter

Dry matter refers to the amount of dry material in a given feed. Green chop consists of about 15–20% and silage about 30–40% dry matter, while grain is about 90% dry matter. Most feeds used in feedlot rations have a dry matter content of around 90%.

A beast needs between 2.7% and 3.0% of its liveweight as dry matter intake per day. Cattle in low condition may eat 3% of their body weight, while cattle with a high degree of finish have a lower capacity (table 6).

To find how much to feed, calculate as dry material and divide by the dry matter percentage to get weight. For example, a silage consists of about 30% dry matter. If we need 3 kg of dry matter, then calculate as follows:

3 × (100 ÷ 30) = 10 kg of wet silage

Roughage

Roughage is required for the satisfactory functioning of the digestive system. Generally, a ration containing 75:25 or 80:20 grain/roughage gives satisfactory weight gain at minimum risk, although rations can vary from 50:50 to 90:10.

The higher the percentage of grain in the ration, the higher weight gain potential, but the risk of digestive upsets is greatly increased when more than 80% grain is fed.

When high levels of roughage are fed—for example, starter rations—good-quality roughage should be used. Poorer-quality roughages are acceptable when low-roughage high-grain rations are fed.

Energy

High-energy rations should be fed for maximum weight gains. Energy is measured as megajoules (MJ) of metabolisable energy (ME) per kilogram of feed.

For efficient fast-fattening, steers under 12 months of age need a ration containing about 12 MJ/kg, and yearling cattle require a ration containing about 11 MJ/ kg. Grains are rich in ME (about 13 MJ/kg) and stubbles are low (about 5 MJ/kg).

Protein

Protein is measured as crude protein (CP). Protein is essential for the health, growth and appetite of the animal. Young cattle require higher levels of protein than older cattle. A range of CP from 11% to 15%, depending on age and weight, will be required (see table 6).

Table 6. Feed requirements of lotfed cattle

Type	Liveweight (kg)	Daily dry matter % of liveweight	ME (MJ/kg)	CP % in ration	Daily weight gain
Weaners	150	2.6	12.0	15.0	1.0
	200	2.7	11.5	13.0	1.0
Yearlings	250	2.9	11.5	12.0	1.3
	300	2.8	11.0	11.5	1.3
	400	2.6	11.0	11.0	1.3
Steers	350	2.9	10.8	11.2	1.4
	400	2.8	10.8	11.0	1.4
	500	2.6	10.8	11.0	1.4
Yearling heifers	250	3.0	11.5	12.0	1.2
	300	2.9	11.0	11.5	1.2

 

Where a high proportion of grain is fed and the roughage is of good quality, there is often adequate protein in the ration. If not, the addition of 1% urea will effectively boost the protein level and aid digestion. Rations for young cattle might be low in protein. If so, you can add a high-protein meal such as sunflower meal, linseed meal or cottonseed meal. Because young cattle require a high proportion of their protein intake from true proteins, these protein meals must be used in preference to urea to raise the protein level of the ration. As cattle slow their growth and become more finished, intake capacity often eases slightly. Weight gain may also ease as more of the energy consumed is converted into fat (higher energy content) rather than muscle. The preferred minimum entry weight for feedlot cattle is 250 kg (liveweight). Cattle can go on to the feedlot at lighter weights, but their protein requirements are so high that the ration becomes expensive and the time on feed is extended to achieve a marketable (although often not profitable) weight. Other components Other components of the feedlot ration include minerals, vitamins, salt, non-protein nitrogen and rumen modifiers. Minerals Cattle need minerals to maintain good health. The most important are phosphorus and calcium. Grain is high in phosphorus and low in calcium, so with a high-grain ration, add calcium as ground limestone at a rate of about 1% (10 kg limestone/tonne) of the ration. This amount can be halved when lucerne hay is used as the roughage component. Extra phosphorus is sometimes added to weaner rations, usually at the rate of 0.1% (1 kg/tonne). Sulfur is often added to rations that include urea, while zinc and cobalt often improve the action of rumen micro-organisms. Other minerals could be needed, but deficiencies are unlikely to occur in short feeding periods (less than 100 days). Salt is added at the rate of 0.2% (2 kg/tonne) of the ration to supply the recommended daily allowance for sodium of 0.08% (0.8 kg/tonne). Non-protein nitrogen (NPN) Urea is cheap and physically easy to feed. However, it is toxic in excess, and inexperienced operators should not attempt to use more than 1% in their ration. See ‘Urea poisoning’ in Cattle health in feedlots. Feed at 1% by weight of the total ration. Because urea can be toxic if fed to excess, take care that this amount does not exceed 2% and that it is thoroughly mixed in the ration. Introduce it gradually, starting with 0.5% by weight (5 kg/tonne) of the total ration for the first 5 days. WARNING: If urea is added to the feed in a powder form and trough cleaning is inadequate, urea may settle to the bottom of the feed bunk. If the trough is not emptied for several days and cattle then eat it out, there is a danger of individual animals eating excessive quantities of urea. This can be lethal. Always use prilled and not granulated urea. Vitamins Vitamin A and E supplementation will be necessary for animals on feed for greater than 60 days. The supplementation may be required even earlier if animals entering the feedlot have been on dry feed or in drought conditions. Premixes should contain the recommended daily allowance of vitamin A as retinol (1000 µg/kg) or its precursor, ß carotene (4500 g/kg). Stored grains contain approximately one-third of vitamin E requirements for growth. Therefore vitamin E should be added at a minimum of 20 mg/kg. Thiamine (vitamin B1) may be necessary to prevent polioencephalomalacia (brain swelling). Consult your veterinarian. Cobalt deficiency can lead to B12 deficiency. Cobalt should be incorporated in the vitamin/mineral premix if feed is grown in a cobalt-deficient area. Animals with a diagnosed deficiency can be treated with vitamin B12. Achieving even distribution of vitamins by directly adding vitamin requirements to the ration is very difficult, because of the very small quantities involved. Commercial premixes that contain the desired variety and proportion of vitamins are available and make an even distribution more achievable. Guides to nutrient drenches and injections and to vitamin and mineral premixes were published in ALFA Lotfeeding in June 1997. Other additives Various substances can be added to the ration to improve feed conversion efficiency or daily weight gain. As a general recommendation, make sure that adequate animal performance is obtained from the basic ration before including additives; they can mask feed or management problems which could otherwise be more readily noticed and rectified. A ‘feed additive’ is generally defined as a feed ingredient of a non-nutritive nature that will stimulate growth or other types of performance, improve the efficiency of feed use, or benefit in some way the health or metabolism of the animal. Rumen modifiers and in-feed antimicrobials Certain antimicrobial agents have been used as feed additives. These are not HGPs. Antimicrobials are used in feedlots to improve animal performance in terms of growth rate or feed conversion efficiency or both. Table 7. In-feed antimicrobial products currently registered for beef cattle and commercially available in Australia (November 1997). These are not HGPs. Active ingredient Trade name Manufacturer/distributor Withholding period Oleandomycin Keymix Calf Weanaid (calves only) International Animal Health Nil Avoparcin Avotan Cyanamid Websters Nil Flavophospholipol Flavomycin Hoechst Animal Health Nil Lasalocid Bovatec, various premixes Roche Products P/L Nil Monensin Rumensin, various premixes Elanco Animal Health Nil Narasin Naravin Elanco Animal Health Nil Virginiamycin Eskalin products Pfizer Animal Health Nil Salinomycin Posistac Pfizer Animal Health Nil The use of antimicrobial feed additive growth promoters, notably the ionophores (e.g. lasalocid, monensin, salinomycin), has resulted in liveweight gains of about 5% and improvement in feed conversion efficiency of 3–4%. Research organisations and industry are investigating other substances for use as growth promotants in beef cattle. New products may become available following clearance and registration. Sodium bentonite Sodium bentonite has been used successfully in the past. It acts as a buffer against grain sickness (acidosis) particularly during the build-up phase, when it should be fed at 2% of the ration. However, in the late 1990s, a number of commercial alternatives have become available, including virginiamycin. Virginiamycin (Eskalin®) When added to the feed, this product can prevent the build-up of lactic acid in the rumen and hence grain poisoning. It has been found to reduce grain poisoning when mixed effectively into the ration. This is a new product, which has only recently become commercially available in Australia. Initial observations reinforce the need for thorough mixing. Virginiamycin is an antimicrobial and it is important that the manufacturer’s recommendations are strictly followed. Proprietary mineral and vitamin premixes or concentrates In the past many small feedlotters have sourced a variety of micro-ingredients and mixed them into a premix or concentrate, which is added to the ration at a rate of 1.5–4%. Today there are many proprietary premixes, concentrates or preparations available in a variety of forms, including pellets and molasses-based mixes and suspensions. Besides saving trouble, a commercial premix or concentrate may be a more reliable preparation to ensure each animal receives its daily requirements. A vitamin–mineral premix for domestic trade cattle should cover all but the most extreme situations. It should supply the following to the diet: Calcium 4.0 g/kg Potassium 1.2 g/kg Sodium 0.8 g/kg Sulfur 0.8 g/kg Copper 4.7 mg/kg Cobalt 0.08 mg/kg Selenium 0.03 mg/kg Zinc 10 mg/kg Vitamin A 1000–1500 µg/kg Vitamin E 20–50 mg/kg Conversion factors Vitamin A 1 mg = 3.3 IU Vitamin E 1 mg = 1.5 IU There are a large number of commercial preparations available, at varying prices (e.g. Rumevite®, Feedlot 80®, Eskape®, Beef Power®). Before selecting a premix, work out what ingredients you need for your operation and make sure they’re available. What other ingredients are included? Do you need them? Proprietary premixes generally incorporate salt, calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, cobalt, copper and magnesium, and may also contain urea, rumen modifiers, sodium bentonite and assorted vitamins. Check whether virginiamycin or other rumen modifiers are included. This document forms part of the publication Opportunity lotfeeding of beef cattle, a NSW Agriculture Feedlot Services publication, which is available for sale in print form from NSW Agriculture. The information contained in this web page is based on knowledge and understanding at the time of writing (6 January 2000). However, because of advances in knowledge, users are reminded of the need to ensure that information upon which they rely is up to date and to check currency of the information with the appropriate officer of New South Wales Department of Agriculture or the user’s independent adviser. © NSW Agriculture 2002 SEARCH | LINKS | MAILBOX | CONDITIONS OF USE | ABOUT US | HOME

Cattle Record Keeping

Backyard cattle raising is fun and sometimes confusing too specially if there's no proper record keeping. In our case for now we have 20 heads and counting. Everything is manage by my father in law and he is familiar on who is responsible on a particular cow. But I am looking at a picture where the number of heads would increase. What if there are 50 heads? This prompts me to search for applications or methods on how to do a proper record keeping.

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Introduction

The recording systems outlined present a package of practical records for beef producers. You can change them to suit your particular needs. The number of records maintained and the detail recorded will vary according to individual needs and how the information is to be used. Each record should have a specific objective and be used for that purpose.

While many beef producers achieve genetic improvement in their herds without keeping individual cow records, a sound management program and careful subjective selection assessment are required. Individual cow records allow for objective assessment of heritable and repeatable traits. They enable you to accurately measure genetic improvement and monitor individual cow fertility and production.

The record formats shown in this Agfact, the second of the two-part series, cover individual breeding cow records that can be applied to breeding herds. The emphasis is on recording production information that is useful in selection decisions for herd improvement and herd fertility monitoring.

What to record

What you record will depend on your needs and your capability to record information. The records you choose to keep should be related to the purpose you are going to use them for, such as selecting heifers, culling cows or forming a nucleus herd for breeding bulls. Producers interested in performance recording and registering animals with BREEDPLAN  will require more detailed record keeping.

Information recorded should mostly be on:

heritable traits, i.e. birthweight, calving difficulty, cancer eye
repeatable traits, i.e. fertility, calving date.

Checklist of records to keep
Cow information
tag number or other identification
year/date of birth
sire/dam record and/or breed
frame size
horned/polled
pigmentation (if applicable)
performance record
Cow performance
Annual records of:

sire mated
pregnancy test result
calving date
calf identification
sex of calf
weight of calf at weaning
performance ranking

Identification

If you are going to record information about individual animals, you need to be able to identify each animal in the herd over a number of years. The easiest way to achieve this at present is to use plastic ear tags.

The Australian beef industry is moving towards a whole-of-life identification system. Trials are currently underway throughout Australia to assess a range of ear tags and rumen capsule identification systems.

Ear tag identification systems

Plastic ear tags are not loss-proof! Where more permanent identification is necessary, a back-up tag (or ear tattoo) is desirable.

Adopting an ear tag identification program is pointless if you do not plan to ‘mother up’ cows with their annual calf drop.

Cows

Ear tags are used to give an individual number, to indicate age and, if required, to show the breeding of the cow or cow group. For example, ‘310’ may represent cow number 10, born in 1993—the first number shows the year of birth and the following numbers identify the individual cow.

Different-coloured tags or the addition of letters above the identification number can be used to record the sire. Cows that fail to rear a calf can have their ear tag notched to identify them for culling and disposal.

Calves

A useful alternative to the common plastic ear tag is the pink ear tag system. Calves can be tagged with pink ear tags (the pink colour denoting HGP-free status), individually numbered in addition to displaying the tail tag number. This means you can use the ear tag instead of the tail tag, and have the benefit of using it as a management tag as well.

Calves treated with HGPs can be tagged with orange ear tags—these calves must have their ‘off’ ear (the right ear) punched with a triangular punch.

Two systems exist for tagging calves: tagging at birth or tagging at marking.


Tagging at birth can be done in two ways:

    * Allocating permanent numbers
          o Heifer calves are allocated a permanent number, e.g. for 1993 calving, numbers would start at 301 or 3001 for the first calf born.
          o Numbers are allocated in order of age. It is then easy to draft into age groups for ‘performance testing without scales’.
          o Male calves can be included in the number sequence or can be given a different set of numbers starting at 1. Linking the perf
ormance of those calves later in life to their dam is important for genetic progress.
    * Numbering all calves with mother’s number
          o This simplifies mothering-up.
          o Replacement heifers are given a permanent number at their first joining.

Tagging at marking:

Calves are numbered, from 1 up, as they run through the calf race.

Odd-numbered tags can be used for steers and even-numbered tags can be used for heifers, or different tag colours can be used.

By observation, cows and calves are ‘mothered up’ during the period between marking and weaning.

When the heifers are to be joined, they can be tagged with a permanent number in line with the cow sequence.

Heifers can be permanently tagged, using the cow sequence format, at marking. For example, at the marking of the 1993 calf drop, the first heifer calf through the race would be tagged number 301.

Points to note about your identification system

Sufficient room should be allowed on your tags for the individual cow number to appear after the year number. Herd size will determine how much room will be needed.

Your ear tag identification numbers should be the same as those shown in your office records.

Correct tag placement will minimise tag losses and provide good legibility.

Office records
Having taken the effort to design an identification system, the next step is to decide upon a system of office records to store the information you wish to keep.

A range of options exist for keeping permanent herd records in the farm office. Traditionally the most versatile of all these options was the use of cow record cards, one card for each cow. However, with the developments in technology, both simple and advanced computer software programs for herd recording are now available. Laptop computers can also be used in the yards to avoid duplication of information.

Cow record cards

Individual breeding cow records need to be kept in a simple, easy-to-use format. Cow record cards have the following advantages:

The full productive history of the cow can be seen at a glance.

The cards can be filed in various ways, for example in paddock groups or in number order within age groups.

As cows are culled and sold, the cards are removed from the system but are retained in order to trace family histories. 

A calving notebook is used to record calving details in the paddock for transfer immediately to cow record cards.

It is easy to draft out, in the office, the top and bottom cows, older cows, and heifer replacements.

An example of a cow record card is given below. A record card size 12.5 cm × 20 cm is recommended. On the back of the card, vaccination and health details can be recorded

An alternative to using cards is to use pages in a loose-leaf folder, with one page per cow. This gives the flexibility to move record pages into groups, but this method is more cumbersome than a card system.

Computer programs are rapidly becoming the most preferred and reliable source of herd recording.

Bull cards

Herd bulls can also be recorded on a computer or card system. The card entries can show age, breeding description, vendor, purchase price, annual joining records, health treatments, frame size, testicular size, and details on breeding soundness and identification.

Cattle notebook

By adopting a card system in the office, all you need in the paddock and the yards is a notebook with headings drawn up for the information you want to keep. Transfer the details as soon as possible, straight onto the cow record cards or computer, taking care to avoid any duplication.

Notebooks used in the paddock and yards can be lost, damaged or fouled up easily. Use a biro, rather than a pencil, to record notebook entries. Pencil entries can become obscure if the notebook gets dirty or wet.

If you do not wish to adopt a cow card system, two other useful records you can keep are a mating group record and a calving book.

Mating group record

This is a group record and not an individual record, although it does allow you to record details on individual cows within the group (see the example below). The main advantage of a mating group record is to check on group fertility (both bull and cows).

If you use cow record cards, then keep mating group records in the notebook. This avoids duplication.

The mating group is a useful herd management record to identify bull fertility problems in both single-sire and multiple-sire joining. It also helps with examining calving spread. Not all the cows joined in each mating group will calve with other cows from that joining group.

Calving book

The calving book (see extract below) allows you to record calving details as cows calve in their calving groups. It is a paddock notebook and the key record required for a software or cow card system.

The layout illustrated is taken from the calving book produced by BREEDPLAN. The format shown is recommended because:

it allows you to record information that is directly transferable to BREEDPLAN; it can be kept as a record in its own right;

records can be transferred onto the computer or the cow record cards.

If the calving book is the only record kept, then you will have all the calves born listed together, along with a record of cows that calved.

Cows that failed to calve need to be recorded also.

Using the calving book
Before calving commences, the cow identification numbers for each calving group should be written down in order.

Daily entries made in the paddock notebook should be transferred to the master sheet or computer that night.

A checklist can be made by listing all calf tag numbers in order, alongside dam numbers. This is done at the back of the calving book when the calves are tagged, e.g. at birth or when cow/calf pairs are mothered-up.

Individual breeding-cow records will allow you to utilise performance information for selection. Often, records will have to be adjusted to make meaningful comparisons between individuals. Remember that comparisons can be made only between animals run together and treated alike.

Records must be relevant to your purpose and must be recorded with ease. Ease of recording is dictated by:

the extensiveness of the property, the stocking rate, and mustering problems;

the herd size in relation to labour available at critical times;

the availability of convenient handling and measuring facilities. 

Beef Cattle Advisory Officers are available to assist beef producers to develop recording programs for their individual herds.

Acknowledgment

This Agfact is based on an earlier print edition of Agfact A2.8.2 Records for herd improvement, written by Ian Blackwood, District Livestock Officer (Beef Cattle and Horses), NSW Agriculture.

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The information contained in this web page is based on knowledge and understanding at the time of writing (8 July 1999). However, because of advances in knowledge, users are reminded of the need to ensure that information upon which they rely is up to date and to check currency of the information with the appropriate officer of New South Wales Department of Agriculture or the user’s independent adviser.

ISSN 0725-7759

Cattle Handling Principles

Arousal

Arousal is the state of activity of animals and ranges from deep sleep to fight/flight.

Handling techniques raise the level of arousal. However, if you control the level of arousal, you control the animal.

Problems occur though when this arousal is too high. Highly-aroused ('stirred-up') animals are more likely to make sudden, violent movements and they behave in a self-protective way either by running away or fighting back.

Highly-aroused animals are also more responsive to further stimulation (a bull which is highly-aroused needs little provocation to attack).

It is desirable to keep animals as calm as possible so that they can move quietly. When necessary, however, handlers may temporarily raise arousal for particular purposes, such as forcing lead animals through a gateway.

Mustered cattle should be allowed to settle down before handling in yards.

Instinctive Behaviour

The usefulness of instinctive behaviour is that it is predicable and requires no training of the animals. The instinct to escape is helpful when handling cattle that are reared under extensive conditions and have little contact with people.

With infrequently-handled animals that are flighty and have less chance of learning the flow system of paddocks and yards, instinctive behaviour is used so that animals 'escape' to where you want them to be.

To do this, the stockperson must learn the rules of position and movement. A person moving alongside animals at just the right moment can turn a mob exactly when needed, but someone positioned wrongly can cause havoc.

Instinctive behaviour is also an important trait to consider when designing yards.

Learning/Training

Cattle have good memories. Bos indicus cattle, in particular, can be taught to be mustered and worked through yards. Every time cattle are handled therefore, it should fit into an overall training plan.

Bos indicus cattle become accustomed to the way in which they are mustered and worked through yards. The best procedures for mustering each paddock and working stock in yards should be developed and adhered to.

The best time to educate cattle is at weaning. This experience should also be made as pleasant as possible. Unfortunately, cattle have an aversion to many management procedures and they may show a reluctance or refusal to cooperate, for instance, cows tossing their head when drenched orally.

Flight Distance

Flight distance is an important concept in livestock handling. It can be described as a circle of safety around an animal.

When a person penetrates the flight zone, the animal moves away. A good stockhandler knows when to penetrate this zone and when to retreat so that the cattle move quietly in the desired direction.

Cattle move most effectively if they can see the handler at all times. Attempting to drive animals by standing directly behind them is often not efficient because they turn and look at the handler. A beast is best driven when the handler is situated at a 45–600 angle from a line perpendicular to an animal's shoulder. This same principle applies to driving mobs of cattle.

The flight distance varies with the tameness of the animal. The distance may be up to 200–300 m for feral cattle but for feedlot cattle it may be only 1–5 m. Very tame cattle are difficult to move because they no longer have a flight zone.

If a handler shouts and excites cattle, this can enlarge the animals' flight zone.

 POSITION AND MOVEMENT

For a stockperson to cause cattle to move in a predictable direction, there are several 'Rules of Position and Movement'.

Point of Balance

Experienced stockhandlers use the point of balance of an animal to move it. Looking from a side view, this means behind the shoulder, and from in front, it is from the centre of the head.

When close to cattle, the stockhandler's position in relation to an animal's shoulder can affect which direction the animal will head. The line through the shoulder is the point of balance. If the stockhandler goes behind this line, the beast moves forward.

By moving towards the front of the animal, the beast will move backward or turn away.

From the front, you can deflect cattle sideways by moving either side of an imaginary line drawn through the middle of the animal's length.

Mob Movement

 The principles of position and movement apply equally when moving mobs or when handling small numbers or individual animals.

A mob of cattle has a collective flight zone around the group. When the handler penetrates the zone, the mob will move.

When a mob is progressing in the right direction, the handler works on the edge of the flight zone. By alternately entering and retreating from the flight zone at the optimum position of 45–60o, the handler keeps the mob moving at the desired pace.

Mobs/Gateways

Once a mob is moving through a gate, the handler should stay on the edge of the flight zone and only enter this zone if the cattle stop moving.

A common mistake by handlers is to stay within the flight zone while the majority of the mob have no escape route. This inevitably leads to cattle turning back and breaking away from the mob as they seek an escape route other than the crowded gateway.

Head Movement

Cattle look in the direction they are about to go. Good stockhandlers can predict which way a beast will turn by noting the position of its head. To turn a beast, stockhandlers should therefore position themselves to turn the animal's head.

A good handler constantly watches the cattle in a mob and can anticipate any change in direction, or breakouts, by noting the head movement of the cattle at the lead and edges of the mob. The handler can therefore take appropriate action before problems occur.

HANDLING IN YARDS


Cattle Behaviour in Yards

Cattle will normally run to a point of escape (often an entrance gate). They will also tend to circle the handler in yards and, therefore, run most consistently on the curve.

Cattle tend to follow each other and the sight of an animal in front helps keep movement flowing. They will, however, baulk or refuse to cross strong shadow stripes. This can inhibit progress through gateways and along races.

Cattle also do not like to walk from a bright, sunlit area of the yard into a dark area such as a shed. The wrong placement of shade (shadow) can result in baulking, for instance, when cattle are walking up a race.

It is often difficult to move cattle from a large area directly to a small, confined area. For this reason, cattle yards are designed so that individual yards are gradually scaled down in size toward the working area/crush.

When yarding stock from the paddock, cattle will enter the receiving yard more readily through a wide gateway if they can see space ahead of them.


Yard Design

Cattle yards should be designed in a way which either uses the natural behaviour of cattle to advantage or which takes into account this natural behaviour. Unfortunately, this is often not the case and the working of cattle in poorly-designed yards can add significantly to the difficulties and the duration of an operation. It also adds to the stress on both cattle and the stock handlers.

The cladding of races, forcing yards and other strategic points in yards can make cattle flow more easily. Apart from obliterating distractions on the outside of the yard, this can offer directional signals to the animals.



Working Direction


Cattle should be worked through, not backwards and forwards, in yards. If cattle learn to go in one end of the yard and out the other, they will work freely without having to be forced.

Most beef producers have an established working procedure when working cattle in yards. The cattle soon learn this method and it has to be considered when carrying out procedures such as drafting.

If cattle have learnt a system and this system is then changed, far more difficulties in handling cattle can be expected. For example, entering the yard from a different direction.


Work within Yard Capacity

Yards should not be overcrowded, particularly for forcing yards. This is because cattle will only pack into a corner and not see the race entrance.


Drafting

When drafting cattle, there are several points to consider:

Cattle need to see an avenue of escape as they tend to stop and turn if they approach a dead-end.

Do not put too many cattle in a yard as this will create insufficient room for cattle movement. (Yard should be ideally half-full.)

There should not be too many handlers in the yard as this reduces room for cattle movement.

Generally draft ? big from small animals - quiet from excitable animals (Easier, excitable animals will generally keep away from handlers).

After drafting, don't leave single animals on their own as they can get very upset   particularly Bos Indicus breeds.


Handling Aids

The use of drafting canes and sticks can extend the distance of control over cattle as it effectively increases the length of the stockhandler's arm.

Holding a cane in front of a beast's head will cause it to either stop or turn. Hitting an animal though is unnecessary and ineffective in moving animals in the right direction. Poking an animal which is already moving in the right direction is also unnecessary and dangerous as this can cause cattle to kick.

Electric prodders however are a useful aid, if used correctly. A prodder should not be used on an animal which has nowhere to go or is already moving in the right direction, such as animals at the back of the mob.

Use of Races, Crushes and Bails

When cattle have been separated from the mob with an individual in a race or crush, the animal is usually stressed and upset as its flight zone can be invaded and it cannot escape. Under these conditions, there is a greater chance of injury to the beast and the handler. This is because the animal is likely to make sudden movements. These sudden movements can cause injury to handlers who may, for example, be placing an anti-backing bar behind the beast or handling the animal through the rails.

Care also has to be taken when working around a beast restrained in a head bail. These animals can still move backwards and forwards very quickly. It is also essential that bail catches and locks are effective as injury to operators can occur and the beast may escape prematurely if they are faulty.


THE ATTRIBUTES OF A GOOD STOCKHANDLER

A good stockhandler should be:

Observant - They will notice slight differences in animal behaviour or appearance, such as in one animal from the rest of the mob.

Confident - They will always react with firm, sure movements and will always be 'the boss' while avoiding getting over-excited.

Competent - They will have the ability to control animals and know where to stand in a yard in relation to the animals being moved and by understanding animal behaviour principles.


In addition, they will:

always give the animals time to assess the situation before expecting a reaction;

have a positive attitude toward the care of the animals. They will also develop a good relationship with the stock and avoid unnecessary hitting and yelling;

make effective use of aids like canes and prodders;

respect each animal's ability for speed and power to do injury.




They will also recognise:

the need to draft-off or segregate specific animals, such as bulls;

that stock differ in their response to different situations;

that the sexes of each species vary in their ease of handling.


They will understand:

the difference between breeds and how they differ in the way they work as a group;

that an animal's physiological state affects animal behaviour.



They will know that:

dominance and the need to maintain hierarchy in a group of cattle can be a problem, especially when handling large numbers of animals in a confined area;

isolation can be a real problem with individual animals, causing them to quickly become upset and dangerous;

training and/or experience of the handler or the cattle can affect the ease of handling of cattle;

horns on cattle can create difficulties when penning in forcing yards and at the entry into races. Horns are often associated with aggressiveness and can make animals less accessible for some handling procedures;

diseased or injured animals are already stressed and may be prone to attacking handlers in an attempt to avoid being disturbed;

weather conditions, time of day, and shadows affect animal comfort and ease of movement.



The good stockhandler will also be acutely aware of the activities which constitute a particularly-high personal risk. These include:

working in close proximity to animals - Any situations like trucks and small yards increase this risk.

handling of bulls, freshly calved cows, or isolated animals.

working in substandard facilities - trying to make do will always increase risks.

working with too many animals - overcrowding.

using incorrect aids or at the wrong time and place.

poor communication between handlers (too many handlers in the yard).

REFERENCES

Gahan R J & Johnston B D Handling Cattle from Farm to Abattoir.

Bulletin, NSW Agriculture, Orange

Hurst R J & Johnston ( 1986) Livestock Handling and Transport Study Tour - Victoria, NSW Agriculture, Orange

Holmes R J (1984) Sheep and cattle Handling Skills - A Manual for New Zealand Conditions, Accident Compensation Corporation, Wellington

Temple Grandin - Livestock Psychology and Handling - Facility Design

Temple Grandin - Livestock Handling from Farm to Slaughter.


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The information contained in this web page is based on knowledge and understanding at the time of writing (15 March 2001). However, because of advances in knowledge, users are reminded of the need to ensure that information upon which they rely is up to date and to check currency of the information with the appropriate officer of New South Wales Department of Agriculture or the user’s independent adviser.